PRO dan KONTRA (Polemik) ReKlamasi Teluk PALU (Catatan Akhir Tahun)

Setiap pembangunan infrastruktur di negara mana saja yang tidak memihak pada kepentingan rakyat pasti akan mengadapi resistensi dari kelompok kelompok masyarakat seperti kelompok gerakan esktraparlementer dan kelompok Sosialis-Demokrat. Jika masalah pembangunan infrastruktur ini  tidak bisa dicarikan solusi yang tepat bisa berpotensi menimbulkan konflik sosial (potensi Konflik vertikal dan horisontal)yang menyeret stakeholders dari berbagai kalangan yang disponsori oleh kelompok LSM (NGO), gerakan mahasiswa, masyarakat lokal dan masyarakat akademisi dan pegiat lingkungan.

Pembangunan infrastruktur perkotaan baik dalam konteks lokal, regional maupun global dalam sejarahnya tidak pernah berjalan mulus dan langsung mendapat dukungan dari masyarakat luas. Namun, selalu berhadapan dengan kelompok masyarakat baik kelompok yang mendukung (Kelompok  Pro) maupun dari kelompok yang menentang  menentang kebijakan pembangunan infrastruktur (Kelompok Kontra). Pembangunan reklamasi di beberapa daerah disinyalir kurang medukung kepentingan rakyat dan kurang memperhatikan aspek pelestarian lingkungan tapi  sebaliknya sering disinyalir hanya mendukung kelompok pemodal.

Dalam kasus reklamasi, kita dapat melihat permasalahannya baik dalam perspektif  lokal maupun perspektif global bahwa pembangunan infrastruktur perkotaan yang mengharuskan diadakan reklamasi diwilayah pantai atau teluk itu terdorang oleh dua alasan. Pertama, alasan keterbatasan wilayah daratan dengan tujuan untuk pembangunan ekonomi suatu wialayah dan alasan tuntutan pembangunan wilayah perkotaan dengan petimbangan estetika agar kelihatan wilayah perkotaan lebih Indah dan seksi sehingg bisa menambah nilai jual beli dari perspektif marketing parawisata.

Alasan pertama, perlu diadakan relamasi untuk memperluas wilayah daratan seperti yang dilakukan oleh beberapa negara, ambil contoh kasus reklamasi di Jepang dan Singapura. Kedua, reklamasi juga harus dilakukan dengan tujuan estetika agar suatu wilayah perkotaan akan kelihatan lebih, cantik, tertata indah dan modern. Biasanya pembangunan reklamasi dilakukan diwilayah teluk dengan membangun beberapa bangunan fasilitas publik diatas daratan reklamasi sperti rumah sakit, pertokoan, mall-mall dan fasilitas publik yang lebih modern dan bertaraf nasional dan internasional. Juga agar wilayah teluk akan kelihatan lebih indah dan menambah nilai jual suatu wilayah yang ingin dijadikan daerah tujuan wisata (Turist Destination) sehingga menimbulkan daya tarik bagi investor dan para wisatawan berkunjung ke suatu daerah.

Namun, kita juga harus perihatin dan penuh perhatian akan dampak lingkungan yang mungkin bisa terjadi pasca pembangunan reklamasi wialayah, laut, pantai dan teluk. Kita bisa saksikan bahwa di beberapa daerah di Sulawesi Tengah yang melakukan program reklamasi pantai juga diduga telah mengalami permasalahan sperti Kabupaten Tolitoli dan Luwuk. Banyak yang menduga bahwa akibat reklaimasi pantai di kabupaten Tolitoli yang juga didukung oleh statemen beberapa pengamat lingkungan aktivist NGO reklamasi di kota cengkeh Tolitoli bahwa kasus reklamasi pantai di kabupaten Tolitoli juga merupakan salah satu pemicu terjadinya kasus banjir dan termasuk kasus banjir air rob.

Kembali ke isu lingkungan dan pembangunan reklamasi wilayah laut yang ramah lingkungansehingga dapat menekan resiko bencana banjir dan bencana yang terkait dapat terlihat di beberapa negara maju. Perlu disadari bahwa program reklamasi pantai yang dilakukan oleh Jepang dan Singapur adalah dengan tujuan dan alasan untuk memperluas wilayah daratan mereka yang secara alami masih sangat terbatas dan terpaksa harus dikembangkan ke wilayah laut disampiang didorong oleh alasan pembangunan dan pembangan ekonomi wilayah tersebut. Namun, harus diingat bahwa pembangunan reklamasi yang dilakukan oleh negara-negara makmur (welfare states) seperti Jepang dan Singapur telah melalui suatu kajian Amdal dan studi kelayakan yang secara mendalam dan dapat dipertanggungjawabkan baik secara saintifik maupun moralitas dan etika pembangunan sehingga dapat menghindari resiko bencana sosial dan bencana alam (Manmade disaster and Natural Disaster) akibat dampak dari reklamasi wilayah laut, pantai dan teluk.

Menyangkut persoalan rencana reklamasi teluk Palu, perlu diangkat pertanyaan, "Apakah pembangunan reklamasi teluk Palu sudah dilakukan pengkajian awal berupa studi AMDAL dan Studi kelayakan?, kalau belum mungkin itu akan menjadi permasalahan sebab setiap pembangunan reklamasi wilayah laut, pantai dan teluk kemungkinan akan membawa dampak lingkungan yang beresiko. Namun, kita juga harus optimis bahwa Pemkot Palu Insya Allah pasti akan memiliki etiket baik dan pasti akan sangat mempertimbangkan kepetingan masyarakta luas demi kemajuan kota Palu yang sama-sama kita cintai ini.

Demikian pandangan saya tentang polemik dan isu kontroversi rencana reklamasi teluk Palu. Semoga sharing pendapat ini bisa bermamfaat bagi kita semua khususnya kelompok masyarakat kota Palu yang mendukung dan mencintai kebijakan pembangunan kota yang berwawasan lingkungan yang populis dan demoratis.

Salam Pembangunan
Mochtar Marhum
Akademisi UNTAD
Pemerhati Masalah Sosial Humaniora

HEDONISME VS PROFESIONALISME

Sejumlah media di tanah air belum lama ini melaporkan gaya hidup hedonisme sejumlah pejabat publik. Ada berita tentang kelakuan hedonisme yang dipertontokan oleh sejumlah wakil rakyat (Politisi senayan) seperti yang dalam laporan beberapa media di tanah air. Yang lebih memprihatinkan lagi adalah sangat ironis terjadi  ketika rakyat masih banyak yang miskin dan menderita. Kata kawan saya gaya hidup seperti ini mungkin kita  bisa plesetkan dengan pameo "Biar miskin asal sombong".

Gaya hidup Hedonisme banyak terdapat di negara-negara makmur (welfare states) dan menurut mereka gaya hidup seperti ini wajar. Masyarakat negara-negara makmur bekerja keras dan berkarya secara profesionalisme selama har Senin-Jumat (Weekdays) dan menikmati kesenangan dunia dengan fasilitas yang mereka miliki selama akhir pekan (Weekend). Jadi weekdays adalah hari profesionalisme dan weekend adalah hari hedonisme.

Banyak yang berpendapat bahwa hidup ini juga harus seimbang dan oleh sebab itu kehidupan ini harus diimbangi dengan bekerja keras dan juga harus menikmati kesenangan (pleasure) yang didapatkan dari hasil kerja keras dan dari duit yang halal dan fasilitas yang legal.

Namun, masih ada persepsi yang berbeda di kalangan masyarakat negara sedang berkembang yang mengklaim bahwa masyarakat di negara maju senang hura-hura dan plesiran (hedonisme). Bahkan yang lebih ekstrim lagi mereka mengklaim bahwa hedonisme adalah gaya hidup yang senang menghambur-hamburkan kekayaan untuk memperoleh kesenangan duniawi. Padahal pandangan ini mungkin kurang sesuai dengan apa yang dimaksudkan dengan hedonisme menurut pemahaman masyarakat di negara-negara makmur. Di samping itu banyak masyarakat agamis menentang kehidupan yang hura-hura dan glamour dan mereka menganggap bahwa ini merupakan konsep dari hedonisme.

Kehidupan yang hura-hura dan glamour oleh mayarakat di negara makmur  menggunakan fasilitas dan modal finansial pribadi yang halal dan juga fasilitas publik atau fasilitas  milik negara secara legal. Namun, yang sering dipersoalkan dibeberapa negara sedang berkembang termasuk Indonesia disinyalir masih ada sejumlah pejabat publik memfaatkan jabatan dan fasilitas negara untuk aktivitas yang berbau henonisme.

Untuk membuktikan kebenaran ini. Saya kira masih perlu verifikasi atau masih perlu ditelusuri lebih jauh apa betul ada sejumlah pejabat publik di negeri ini masih suka mempertotonkan gaya hidup yang hedonis di tengah-tengah sorotan akan kinerja dan integritas mereka yang masih memprihatinkan.

REVOLUSI LYBIA VS KEMATIAN GHADAFY

Baru-baru ini semua mata tertuju ke negara-negara Jazirah Arab (Arab World) yang sedang menghadapi Revolusi yang dan dikenal dengan terminologi Arab Awakening atau Arab Spring. Gerakan Revolusi itu  berawal dari Tunisia kemudian Mesir, Yaman, Bahrain, Syria dan Libya serta beberapa lagi lagi negara Jazirah Arab di Timur Tengah dan Afrika Utrara yang punya Potensi terjadinya Revolusi. Sejumlah masyarakat dan pemimpin dunia mengutuk keras tindakan brutal pemimpin2 diktator di negara-negara tersebut yang ingin berkuasa selama-lamanya dengan cara-cara tindakan militer dan kebetulan para pemimpinnya kebanyakan berlatar belakang perwira militer.

NATO mengeluarkan kebijakan larangan terbang (No Fly Zone) juga membantu menyerang kekuatan militer Libya. Namun, NATO belum menggelar pasukan daratnya. Fakta di lapangan menunjukkan bahwa yang melakukan serangan darat adalah warga Libya yg masuk dalam kelompok Oposisi National Transition Council (NTC) Dewan Nasional Pemerintahan Transisi yang didentifikasi sebagai kelompok Anti Pemerintahan Diktator Ghadafy.

Sejumlah media melaporkan bahwa sebagian masyarakat dunia sangat prihatin dengan kejadian penangkapan sang Diktator hidup-hidup ketika konvoi Ghadafi diserang pesawat pengintai NATO (Drone) dan konvoi panik lalu berpencar. Ghadafy, putranya Mustassim serta Menhannya ketika itu lari berpencar mnyelamatkan nyawa tapi akhinya ketiganya tewas di tangan pasukan kelompok oposisi. Ghadafi sendiri lari dan bersembunyi di lubang pipa besar dalam drainase. Akhirnya Gadafi ditangkap hidup-hidup oleh lawan politiknya. Dalam beberapa tayangan video amatir yang dipertontonkan sejumlah media ternyata Ghadafi ditangkap hidup-hidup dan akhirnya meninggal di tangan pengadilan jalanan kelompok pasukan oposisi di bawa bendera NTC. Hasil Otopsi atas kematian Ghadafy telah dilakukan dan ditemukan sejumlah bukti bahwa kematian Ghadafy disebabkan oleh peluruh yg menembus kepala dan perutnya dan diperkirakan Sang mantan pemimpin Revolusi itu megalami penyiksaan sebelum menghembuskan nafas terkahirnya.

Sejumlah pengamat mengatakan tindakan penganiayaan terhadap sang mantan pemimpin revolusi yang dijuluki diktator itu disebabkan pasukan oposisi merasa sangat dendam. Ketika awal revolusi Arab (Arab Spring) berhembus ke Libya pasca insiden kejatuhan Rezim Ben Ali di Tunisia dan Rezim Mubarak di Mesir, sejumlah media melaporkan Ghadafy menghadapi para pedemonstran damai dengan cara-cara yang sangat refresif dan penuh kebencian (Hatred). Ghadafy dan orang dekatnya menuding bahwa para pedemonstran adalah tikus-tikus yang harus dimusnakan. Kejar mereka dan bunuh mereka sampai ke rumah-rumah, kamar dan tempat persembunyian mereka dan tindakan itu telah dibuktikan melalui tindakan refresif yg telah mengorbankan ribuan rakyat libya yang telah bersebrangan pandangan politik dengan Almarhum. Bahkan lebih brutal lagi Ghadfy menyuruh pasukan angkatan udaranya mengebom para pedemonstran tapi ternyata Tentara Angkatan Udara Libya yg disuruh mengebom masih punya hati nurani dan nekat membelot ke negara lain lalu minta suaka politik.

Kini Ghadafi telah tiada dan banyak loyalistnya juga telah mati dibantai oleh kelompok oposisi NTC. Di samping banyak kekurangan dan kelemahan Ghadafy ternyata dari sejumlah laporan media luar negeri dan dalam negeri Ghadafy slama kepemimpinannya juga membuat sejumlah kebijakan yang cukup populis dan membela kepentingan rakyat kecil seperti, masyarakat menikmati listrik gratis alias tanpa harus membayar rekening. Kredit atau utang bebas bunga (Intrest free). Pasangan yang menika mendapat bantuan keuangan dari negara dan masih banyak lagi fasilitas dan kemudahan yang telah diberikan kepada rakyat secara gratis. Kemudian dari perspektif keluarga, Ghadafy termasuk sukses membina anak2nya sehingga sebagian besar anak2nya sempat mengenyam pendidikan tinggi. Beberapa anak Ghadafy sempat mengenyam pendidikan Tinggi di dalam dan luar negeri bahkan putra tertuanya dari istri kedua, Syaif El Islam berhasil menyelsaikan pendidikan S3 (PhD) dari London School of Economics, salah satu perguruan tinggi ternama di dunia. Saif sangat cerdas dan diprediksi akan menggantikan Ghaday. Putrinya yg bernama Aisyah, seorang pengacara beken yg perna menjadi salah satu tim pengacara mantan Presiden Sadam Husain. Ghadafy dan kelurganya juga punya banyak yayasan sosial yang banyak membantu masyarakt di Libya dan bahkan di Luar Negeri.

Walaupun Almarhum Ghadafy oleh loyalist dan fansnya di libya dan di luar negeri diberi gelar Pemimpin revolusi yang telah berhasil menggulingkan Raja Idris 40 thn lalu ketika Ghadafy masih berusia 27 thn dan masih berpangkat Kapten. Ghadafi  juga digelar Martir yang konsisten dengan tekadnya untuk tidak akan meninggalkan tanah kelahirannya serta berani mati mempertahankan tanah tumpa daranya, Gadafy juga banyak kelemahan misalnya, kekuasannya adalah absolut dengan bertopeng pada bentuk pemerintahan Sosialisme-Islam yang menganggap bahwa kekuasaan ada ditangan rakyat tapi kenyataannya jauh berbeda. Ghadafy adalah pemimpin Diktator yang mengangkat anak-anaknya dan keluarganya dan hanya orang-orang dari sukunya pada posisi yang strategis yang bertujuan bisa membantu mempertahankan kekuasaannya selama 42 thn sebelum digulingkan oleh kelompok oposisi dengan dibantu oleh pasukan NATO melalui serangan udara. Juga karena kekuasaan absolut praktek KKN rawan terjadi. Tidak bisa dibedakan mana kekayaan pribadi dan mana kekayaan Publik (milik negara dan rakyat). Ada kecenderungan praktek menumpuk harta kekayaan dan menyimpannya di Bank2 di luar negeri tapi akhirnya kekayaan hasil rampok uang rakyat itu akhirnya dibekukan oleh lembaga internasional berwenang di bawa rekomendasi NATO dan NTC.

Kematian Ghadafy secara sadis dan tidak berprikemanusiaan di tangan rakyatnya sendiri yang pernah mencintai dan menghormati almarhum selama lebih dari 40 thn, bisa dijadikan pelajaran penting bagi pemimpin-pemimpin dunia yang mau berkuasa selama-lamanya melalui pratek KKN dan membiarkan rakyat tertindas, miskin dan sengsara. Ghadafy menjadikan lembaga Militer menjadi tidak formal agar tidak mudah melakukan kudeta. Selanjutnya, apapun tuduhan dan dugaan keterlibatan NATO dan Amerika yang mana sejumlah orang menduga memiliki agenda tersembunyi untuk memudahkan kerjasama dengan pemerintahan NTC menggarap ladang minyak. Juga harus diakui bahwa mayoritas rakyat Libya sudah jenuh dengan kepemimpinan diktator tsb.  Di Indonesia saja selama Orde Reformasi dan Orde Lalu (Orba dan Orla) rakyat jenuh dengan praktek KKN dan sangat alergi dengan pemimpin yang mau berkuasa selama-lamanya.


Salam Perdamaian
Mochtar M

DIRGAHAYU KOTA PALU TERCINTA KE-33

Dalam rangka Dirgahayu Kota Palu yang ke-33 ada dua hal yang ingin saya sampaikan:

Pertama, terus terang sebagai warga Palu kami sangat bangga dan appresiasi atas pencapaian pembangunan infrstruktur kota Palu yang cukup signifikan. Namun, dibalik itu juga harus diakui bahwa masih ada PR besar yang harus dicarikan solusi terbaik agar Program Green and Clean yang telah dicanangkan Pemkot Palu bisa berhasil. Ingat masalah sampa yg berserakan dan Sapi yg berkeliaran harus ditangani secara lebih efektif !!.

Kedua, infrastruktur jalan raya Palu mulai membanggakan tapi sangat disesali karena masih sering trjadi penutupan jalan seperti di Jalan Raya Soekarno-Hatta menuju Kampus UNTAD dan terminal Mmboro. Pentupan jalan raya karena kegiatn balapn motor di lokasi Ex-STQ sudah sangat mengganggu pengguna jalan raya yang tentu mereka juga sngat taat byar pajak kendaraan dan punya hak menggunakan jalan raya.

Sudah saatnya Pemkot Palu, IMI-Sulteng dan Polantas PolDa Sulteng harus mencarikan solusi terbaik agar pengguna jalan raya tidak merasa terganggu oleh frekwnsi penutupn jalan yang terbilang cukup tinggi.

Demikian penyampaian kami sebagai warga kota Palu dan mewakili teman-teman warga palu yang sangat mencintai kota. Kami berharap semoga ke depan Kota Palu  menjadi kota terbaik dan terdepan di Kawasan timur Indonesia. Mari bersama membangun dan mencarikan solusi terbaik untuk pembangunan kota Palu menuju City for all dengan menjunjung tinggi filsafat dan Jargonnya "Nosarara Nosabatutu"

Sekali lagi, "Dirgahayu Kota Paluku tercinta".


Salandoa
Mochtar Marhum
Akademisi UNTAD

HUT PROKLAMASI RI KE 66: ISU NASIONALISME MASYARAKAT YANG TINGGAL DI PERBATASAN NKRI

Setelah heboh dengan kasus tertangkapnya Nazaruddin di Columbia dan ada sebagian masyarakat yang mengira penangkapan Nazaruddin di Solumbia Kecamatan Dondo Toitoli karena nama lokasi penangkapan Nazaruddin mirip-mirip antara Columbia dan Solumbia.

Kini media melaporkan bahwa Upacara HUT Proklamasi Ke 66 tingkat Nasional akan dilaksanakan di Pulau Lingayan Kecamatan Dampal Utara Kab Tolitoli. Pulau Lingayan adalah salah satu pulau terluar NKRI yang berbatasan langsung dengan Negeri Jiran Malaysia. Upacara Hut Prolakmasi juga akan dihadiri oleh pejabat dari Kementrian Jakarta, Pejabat Pemprov Sulteng, Pemkab Tolitoli dan masyarakat setempat.

Disinyalir oleh sejumlah Media bahwa pulau Lingayan berpotensi menjadi ancaman klaim negeri Jiran Malaysia sebagai pulau milik mereka sama dengan kasus sebelumnya yang pernah terjadi. Oleh sebab itu pemerintah pusat bekerjasama dengan Pemprov Sulteng akan menjalankan kebijakan pemerintah untuk menyelenggarakan Upacara HUT Proklamasi tingkat Nasional yang ke 66 di Pulau Lingayan.

Kegiatan Upacara Peringatan Hut Proklamasi di pulau-pulau terluar NKRI ini juga telah dilaksanakan sebelumnya di beberapa pulau terluar NKRI yang mana pulau-pulau tersebut berpotensi dicaplok oleh negara tetangga NKRI. Tujuan dari upacara ini adalah untuk membangkitkan rasa nasionalisme dan patriotisme khususnya penduduk lokal di pulau-pulau terluar NKRI.

Salam NKRI

Betulkah Guru Sering Jadi Korban Ekploitasi Politik Praktis ?

Guru di daerah kurang iindependen dan sering disinyalir mereka harus bermain politik praktis yang manis jika ingin promosi jadi kepala sekolah atau kepala Bidang dan bahkan kadis. Namun, terkadang mereka juga mengalami nasib sial terutama jika kandidat kepala daerah yang mereka dukung gagal.

Tulisan ini berawal dari diskusi di sejumlah mailinglist (Milist) atas keprihatinan akibat sering diberitakan oleh sejumlah media bahwa guru-guru sering jadi korban eksploitasi politik praktis terutama pada moment Pemilukada di beberapa daerah di Indonesia.

Diduga hampir setiap event  Pemilukada Guru harus mendukung salah satu kandidat kuat kepala daerah karena mungkin disebabkan oleh sistem dan kultur serta tradisi yang terpaksa menyeret guru terlibat bermain politik praktis. Kasus ini banyak terjadi di beberapa daerah terutama ketika event Pemilukada berlangsung.

Pada umumnya guru sering  mendukung kandidat Bupati incumbent karena mengikuti komando implisit atau eksplisit  dari Kadis atau Kepsek. Jika kandidat yang guru-guru usung menang maka mereka akan dapat durian runtuh dan siap dipromosi jadi kepsek, Kabid, Kabag bahkan Kadis. Namun, bila lagi apes alias badluck karena kandidat yang didukung gagal dalam pemilukada sangat sering guru jadi korban penganiayaan politik oleh kandidat yang menang dan kasus ini sudah pernah terjadi di beberapa wilayah di tanah air. Sejumlah guru dimutasi ke daerah-daerah terpencil akibat tidak mendukung incumbent.

Kesimpulannya, catatan ini tidak bisa digeneralisasikan karena masih jauh lebih banyak guru yang idealis dan tetap mempertahankan martabat profesi keguruannya ketimbang terseret dan terkontaminasi dengan bujuk rayu jabatan struktural atau tugas tambahan sebagai kepala sekolah. Namun, juga harus diakui bahwa guru PNS sering terseret arus politik dan mau tak mau terpaksa harus terlibat bermain politik secara sembunyi-sembunyi. Saya setuju saatnya guru harus lebih profesional dan tidak terkontaminasi dengan politik praktis yang licik dan kotor itu. Semoga ke depan guru-guru di negeri ini akan lebih profesional dan terhindar dari eksploitasi politik praktis. Salam Edukasi

Issues in Language, Culture and Education in Eastern Indonesia

Preface

        The Era of Globalization and Decentralization have clear implication for the development of education and culture in Indonesia. Global education including the teaching of global language, English has become trend in schools across provinces of Indonesia. Indonesian people should able to respond to this trend wisely. Furthermore, Decentralization of Education in Indonesia becomes a significant education policy as well as a milestone in the process of democracy. Educational decentralization policy seems to respond to the local school’s need and the local people’s aspirations.

       This book is designed to give a wide perspective on the importance of development and implementation of effective language, culture and education policy at primary schools in Indonesia. It also provides recommendations to both local governments and central government of Indonesia to consider the importance of bottom up policy in the development of democratization in the educational settings. Furthermore, the balance of language education in schools should be taken into consideration including the local language maintenance program through formal education that in line with the local people’s aspirations.

        Thus, this book is dedicated to educators, curriculum planners, policy makers, linguists and all members of community who are concerned with the development and implementation of language, culture and education policy in schools.

        However, it is undeniable that this book could be far from perfect. Therefore, any suggestion and comments from the readers are welcome.

Blurb 

Before the era of political reform, educational and cultural policies in Indonesia were centralized. Nearly all public policies and decision making in the area of education and culture did not fully consider the real needs of the local people across the archipelago. In 1999, the new government policies were introduced and consider the importance of local people participation in decision making of language education policies in their own areas. Emerging as one of the biggest democracy countries in the world, Indonesia should maintain the balance and harmony of language education in schools. Inclusive educational and cultural policies are required in order to respect the reality of multicultural society particularly in this era of Decentralization and Globalization. District of Tolitoli in Eastern Indonesia experienced new challenges on the implementation of language education policy.  This book, therefore, is provided for lecturers, researchers, curriculum planners and policy makers who are concerned with the issues in cultural and educational policies.

Notes:
My book was published by LAP Publisher in Germany in 2009 and it can be purchased through Amazon Website.

LANGUAGE POLICY AND EDUCATIONAL DECENTRALISATION: AN INDONESIAN CONTEXT

The problems of language policies and education development in Indonesia have become interesting topics discussed and strongly debated by academics, researchers, educators, politicians and bureaucrats. Historical perspectives and the prospect of language policies for education need to be taken into consideration.

The era of globalization has brought significant changes in many aspects of development around the world. The political reforms that took place in Indonesia recently have highly significant implications for Indonesian development, particularly in the areas of education and culture. The educational decentralization policy introduced by the government has given greater opportunities for the local schools to plan and develop their own curriculum.

This chapter discusses relevant and supporting information that includes the historical background, the prospect of national language policy, multilingualism and language policy, educational decentralization policy, capacity building and school based management, the assessment of educational input, and the local curriculum content.

The Historical Background

Language policy and education in Indonesia cannot be separated from the nation’s historical background dating back to the 1940s and 1950s. The following sections present relevant issues based on Indonesia’s historical background and include the development of language policy in the early years of independence of the Republic of Indonesia.

Language Policy, 1945-1950

On August 17, 1945 Soekarno and Hatta proclaimed the independence of the Republic of Indonesia and announced that Bahasa Indonesia would be the national language of the Republic (Anwarr, 1980, p.50). On November 6, 1945 Lieutenant Governor-General Van Mook of the Dutch administration announced that the Indonesian language would be further developed so that it could be used in all segments of social, cultural and economic life. “There would be full recognition of the Indonesian language alongside the Dutch” (Officiële bescheiden, 1971: p.590).

On September 28, 1945 a few moderate Indonesians, including Hoesein Djajadiningrat, a former member of the council of the Dutch East Indies and Director of Department of Education, presented to C.O. van der Plas, arguments for the recognition of Bahasa Indonesia as a language of equal status with Dutch. Bahasa Indonesia was subsequently declared the second official language alongside Dutch and strong efforts would be made to promote the knowledge of Dutch as the important international language (Officiële bescheiden 1, 1971, 257,326,475,590).

In July-August 1947 a new school curriculum was introduced. The new curriculum was accepted without amendments by E. Katopo, Minister of Education of the State of East Indonesia. Expectations were that within a short time the plan would be accepted and introduced in other federal states as well (Post 1948, p.492-505).

The new language policy aimed to promote the learning of Dutch as well as Indonesian at all levels of society and it is hardly surprising that no agreement could be reached in the negotiations on the Republic held after the Renville Treaty of January 1948, under the supervision of the united state of Indonesia. The Republicans proposed the following language policy on March 23, 1948:

Stipulating that Bahasa Indonesia as the official language of the united states of Indonesia and the member states shall be in the opportunity of cultivating their own local languages (Javanese, Sundanese, Makassare etc.) side by side with Bahasa Indonesia, whilst adequate interest shall be paid to the Dutch language as the language of the Indonesian citizens that are of Dutch origin, and the language of a Partner in the Union. (Officiële bescheiden 13, 1986, p.278)

After 1950, primary and secondary education with Dutch as the language of instruction was conducted only by private schools managed by the Foundation for Dutch Education in Indonesia. In the middle of 1951 the 66 primary schools managed by this Foundation had an enrolment of almost 10,000 students, more than three quarters of whom were children of Dutch people.

By the 1970s, although Dutch was no longer a living language in Indonesia in the true sense of the term, many indigenous elites who grew up with Dutch and were educated in Dutch, still enjoyed speaking Dutch informally among themselves (Tanner 1972, p. 137), or a sort of hybrid language of Bahasa Indonesia and Dutch sprinkled with English words and expressions (Suprapto 1989, p. 311-12). Even today, Dutch still functions as a prestigious language in some parts of Indonesia, as evidence that a person had a good education and belonged to the social elite. Dutch remains an important so-called source language in Indonesia and Dutch retains its role as a key to the Indonesian past. Dutch in other words, as a detour, was and still is a “Gateway to the West,” where the road makes a wide loop, ending “the Gate way to the east” (Groenboer, 1998).

The Prospect of National Language Policy

According to Halim (1998) the National Language Policy refers to the national policy including planning, standardizing, educating, developing the Indonesian language and the local languages. Alwi et al. (2000) argued that the national language policy was associated with the outlines which were used as a standard in the whole language management in Indonesia. Furthermore, the language policy in Indonesia was associated with (a) national language, (b) local language, and (c) the teaching and use of English and other foreign languages.

Halim (1998, p.133) suggested that the aspect that should be considered in relation to the national language policy was sustainability in the sense of a systematic and strategic national language policy. Abas (1987), however, suggested that sustainability in the national language policy should be considered because this problem might become the weakness of the national language policy in the education and development of local languages, and the teaching of foreign languages including English in Indonesia.

Sustainability Based on Historical Record

According to history, the national language policy was developed with clear sustainability. The Youth Pledge (Sumpa Pemuda) on 28 October 1928 could be considered as a starting point of a national language policy (Alisjabana, 1976; Abas, 1987; Halim, 1998). The third point of the youth pledge stipulated, “We, sons and daughters of Indonesia respect the language of unity, or national language, Indonesian Language”. Sumampouw (2003) suggested that the third point of the youth pledge was also associated with the Indonesian people’s positive attitude towards the Indonesian language which was declared through the statement, “respecting the language of unity”. Thus, it can be concluded that the present national language policy could be traced back to the 1928 Indonesian Youth Pledge.

According to Halim (1988) the statement of the 1928 Indonesian Youth Pledge was followed up by the maintenance and development of the Indonesian language and literature in the form of the publication of a local magazine, Pujangga Baru in the 1930s. The publication was led by Sutan Takdir Alisjahbana, Amir Hamzah, and Armin Pane. During the Japanese Occupation (1942 – 1945), the national language policy was advanced through the formation of a Terminology Commission that developed the rule of terminology to meet the need for text books as a result of the ban of Dutch text books in all educational institutions.

Following the proclamation of Indonesian Independence in 1945, the third point of 1928 Indonesian Youth Pledge was emphasized in the 1945 Constitution, Article 36 which stated that, “the national language is Bahasa Indonesia”. Furthermore, according to Pusat Pembinaan dan Pengembangan Bahasa (1984), the formal statement on the national language policy was formulated in Article 36 of the 1945 Constitution which stipulated:

The local languages are maintained by the speakers, e.g. Javanese, Sundanese, Madurese, Makasarese, Balinese, Buginese etc. The local languages are respected and maintained by the state. The local language is a part of Indonesian living culture. (Pusat Pembinaan & Pengembangan Bahasa, 1984)

Article 36 with its explanation is a statement of the function and status of the Indonesian language and local languages.

The development of Bahasa Indonesia improved again in 1950^s, through the publication of a new grammar of Indonesian language by Alisjahbana. The influence has continued up to the present time, with, in addition, the publication of the large dictionary of the Indonesian language by Poerwadarminta (Abas, 1987; Alip, 1993).

In the 1970^s, a new era of language planning emerged. Newly standardized Indonesian language spelling was introduced by the Government of the Republic of Indonesia in 1972 (Abas, 1987; Basri, 1996). Furthermore, the general guidance of standardized Indonesian language spelling and the general guidance for the formulation of terminology were introduced by the Ministry of Education and Culture in 1975.

The issues of national language policy became the main topic of a seminar on national language policy in Jakarta in 1975. The seminar and pre-seminar resulted in the agreement of the status and function of a national language, the function and status of local language and the function and status of foreign languages in Indonesia (Alisjabana, 1976; Abas, 1987; Halim 1998). The national language policy underlined the ideas that the local, national language and foreign language had interrelations that could not be denied. From the development of national language policy up to the present time, it must be concluded that the sustainability of a national language policy has developed in accordance with the envisaged demands and dynamics of Indonesian community life in the future (Alisjabana, 1976, Halim 1998).

Sustainability Based on Particular Areas

The national language policy dealt with the areas that had close interrelations so that it needed sustainable language planning. Halim (1998) argued that the national language policy was associated with education and development of both local and national languages in addition to the use of a foreign language. Through language education, it was expected that the society and the language speakers would have positive attitudes towards the language spoken (Somare, 1974; Lucas, at al., 1990; Nagai 1997). Thus, the society would use a standardized language based on the language rules and sociolinguistics. On the other hand, language development referred to the improvement of grammar, spelling rules, terminology rules, vocabulary and syntaxes, as a result the language could be used as a public means of communication, supporting the media in science and technology development and as a means of cultural maintenance. Therefore, Halim (1998) suggested that both language education and language development should be planned and balanced in order to achieve sustainability either in the process or in the output. 

The national language policy must also be associated with language variety such as the written language and the spoken language, a professional language and a social language (Abas, 1987; AACLAME, 1990). The problem of language variety is complicated. Therefore, in 1970^s and 1980^s the national language policy was focused on the priority scale of language education and language development in relation to language variety. Halim (1998) argued that, based on the urgent needs and capacity, human resources in the form of available linguists, technical considerations, particularly the sociolinguistics aspect, written language was given greater priority than spoken language. Consequently, the written language has been developed more than the spoken language. For this reasons, it is important to focus not only on written aspects but also other aspects of language usage.

The national language policy currently refers to both the development of Indonesian language in education and the local languages and, in addition to the relationship between Indonesian language and local languages. On the other hand, many local people have realized that their local languages have been threatened by the national language, Bahasa Indonesia (Grimes, 1992; Crystal, 2000, Sneddon, 2003). Moreover, the local languages become endangered and do not have prospects for the future.

Halim (1998) suggested that the Indonesian people should have a positive attitude towards Bahasa Indonesia and at the same time they should maintain their local languages based on the 1945 Constitution, Article 36. The sustainable development and education of language should cover English, Bahasa Indonesia, other foreign languages and the local languages. Yet according to some education experts in Indonesia, there were no clear and specific regulations to guide the local educators and curriculum planners, for example, to promote language education in schools (See also Jakarta Post, 2001, Jazadi, 2003b).

The national language policy should involve every community, all sectors of government and all organizations including the private and the public (Ingram, 1993; Djite, 1994). On the other hand, there has been a wrong perception among the community which argues that the national language policy should be the responsibility of the Department of Education and Culture, particularly the maintenance of the National Language Centre. On the other hand, many government and private agencies have not used the standardized Bahasa Indonesia. They are more strongly influenced by the use of English jargon and terminology in running their business because of the impact of globalization (Ingram, 1993; Crystal, 2000). As a result, it seems that Bahasa Indonesia has been undermined.

The Sustainability Based on the Situation

The imbalance of Bahasa Indonesia education and development in the urban areas on the one side and in the rural areas in the other side, have not resulted in a balanced result (Alwasilah, 1997; Sumapouw, 2003). This is not only due to the limitation of TV transmission programs into the rural areas but also because many people in the rural areas cannot obtain the program satisfactorily. Furthermore, both government and private agencies have not paid close enough attention to Bahasa Indonesia education and development particularly at the Kabupaten and Propinsi level (Alwasilah, 1997; Basri, 1996). In relation to the above issues, the Ministry of Domestic Affairs issued a Decree No.20/1991 on 28 October 1991. The decree was forwarded to all governors, Bupati (Head of District) and mayors across Indonesia. It aimed at promoting Bahasa Indonesia for the sake of national unity (Abas, 1987; Halim, 1998). Another decree was issued by the Ministry of Education and Culture Decree No. 1/U/1992 on the promotion of Bahasa Indonesia for the strengthening of national unity. Furthermore, the local government of Jakarta issued a Local Government Regulation No.1/1992 on the use of Bahasa Indonesia on sign posts, banners and advertisements in DKI Jakarta Province. Halim (1998) suggested that this good example must be followed by all government and private agencies at the local government levels. The Memorandum of Understanding on the national language policy signed by the National Language Centre, the local government of DKI Jakarta, Central Java and Aceh is an appropriate action plan to promote sustainability of national language policy across provinces of Indonesia.

Huda (2000) argued that the national language policy must also cover the complete formulation of the status, function, and use of foreign language in Indonesia. Alwasilah (1997) suggested that this policy was required to overcome the language problems related to the domination of foreign language popularity, particularly English, and the detrimental impact of foreign language use on Bahasa Indonesia and local languages.

Finally, based on the previous discussions, it is important to review the national language policy in order that the sustainable national language policy of all aspects could be achieved in the future. In addition, the status of National Language Development should be upgraded and based on the Indonesian National Language Congress III (1978) and the Indonesian National Language Congress IV (1983).

Multilingualism and Language Policy

The situation of local, national and global languages in Indonesia has become a reality for many years alongside the history of the Republic of Indonesia which consists of bilingual and multilingual communities (Alisjabana, 1976; Abas, 1987). Furthermore, the language awareness among Indonesian communities has grown significantly following the development of Indonesia.

The local language as one of the linguistic problems in Indonesia, should be seriously taken into consideration (Mu’adz, 2000; Rosidi, 2001). The enormous number of local languages in Indonesia has become an important asset. For this reason, it is both essential and urgent to define and develop the functions of local, national and global languages.

The Status and Function of English in Indonesia in a Globalization Era

English is the first foreign language now being taught in Indonesia. It is based on the Regulation of Ministry of Education and Culture No. 096/1967 (Kartono,1976: Alwasilah, 1997) regulating the status and function of English. It has been used as the first foreign language in Indonesia since 1955. Halim (1976, p.146) argued that English has some official functions in Indonesia:

(1) Means of communication among Nations, (2) means of development supporter of Indonesian language to become modern language, and (3) means of science and technology transfer for national development.

English has several functions in the globalization era. First, many nations all over the world have a growing rate of interdependence (Crystal 1994; Pennycook, 1994; Alwasilah, 1997). International relations are not limited to the economic and political area, but also operate in many other aspects of life. Their functions include the establishment of close relations with other nations and the implementation of foreign policy based on the Regulation of the Ministry of Education, NO 096/1967. Thus, in general, foreign languages function as a means of global communication in all aspects of life.

Second, globalization brings about an increase in international competition. The mastery of science and technology becomes the key to winning the competition. For that reason, English should function as an instrument of applying and advancing science and technology to accelerate the developmental process (Crystal, 1997; Ingram 1993). This function includes that of acquisition, use and development in a general sense. This function also covers the use of English as an instrument of development that supports the use of Indonesian as a modern language (Alwasilah, 1997; Huda, 2000).

According to historical records, following the independence of the Republic of Indonesia, the Dutch language was replaced by English as the first foreign language, and has been recognized as such in Indonesia since 1955 (Alisjabana, 1976; de Han, 2003). Since the 1980^s,English has been considered to be the most important foreign language in Indonesia. The government’s and community’s interest in English has been growing since the early 1990^s (Alwasilah, 1997; Supriadi, 1999). This position of English can be traced from government documents on the results of Parliament’s meetings. In the GBHN (The Guidelines of the State Policy) 1983 and 1988, foreign language policy was not incorporated. However, in the GBHN 1993, the policy on foreign languages, particularly English, was clearly stipulated. The policy related to the use and mastery of English. In 1988, Government Regulation No. 55, 56 and 57/1988 changing Government Regulation No. 28, 29/990 was introduced. It confirmed the use of English in schools.  Moreover, Government Regulation of No 57/1957/1988 confirmed the use of English as a foreign language and as a means of communication in the university. Subsequently, it was incorporated into Government Regulation No 60/1999 on the use of English in all higher education. Alwasilah (1997, p.89) suggested that:

The need for mastery of English in the globalization era was absolutely necessary. In addition, it would be ideal if the mastery of English became the mastery of second language. Yet, there were several obstacles that would necessarily be encountered.

Abas (1987), argued that it had to conform to the national interest which gave high priority to the development of the Indonesian language as a national language of unity and unification.

The Role and Function of Bahasa Indonesia in the Globalization Era.

In order to prepare for the globalization era, it was necessary to maximize the role and function of Bahasa Indonesia (Alwi at. al. 2000; Moeliono, 2000). Bahasa Indonesia should be studied and evaluated. In addition, the problems of learning Bahasa Indonesia must be identified and solved. Gunarwan, (2000) suggested that establishing positive attitudes toward language learning could become the target of education for language maintenance.

Moelinono (2000, p.26) argued that there were several factors which were not conducive to the development of Bahasa Indonesia:

First, many Indonesian people in particular areas are not yet able to use Bahasa Indonesia. Furthermore, some are not motivated to learn Bahasa Indonesia because they think it is not necessary. According to the linguists, many Indonesian people have not considered the importance of learning the skills of reading and writing of Bahasa Indonesia. Second, many people still used local languages in certain local situations.

This leads to problems with Bahasa Indonesia development. In other words, lack of support for Bahasa Indonesia might contribute to the inadequate promotion of the Bahasa Indonesia (Alwasilah at al., 2000). However, the use of local languages might cause suspicion among those people who don’t understand the local languages in spoken form.

Third, the use of the foreign language and English, as a prestigious language would be beyond the role, status and function of language by individuals and communities (Alwasilah, 1997; Crystal, 2000). Such habits and attitudes might not show significant respect of  Bahasa Indonesia as well as the people.

Fourth, casualness of Bahasa Indonesia teaching or Bahasa Indonesia development have resulted in several errors and mistakes in the use of Bahasa Indonesia (Moeliono, 2000). The linguistic factors that have needed to be corrected have included word choice, euphemism and language structure.

The Status and Function of Local Languages in the Globalization Era

Taha (2000, p.34) suggested that the status and function of local languages in Indonesia in the current situation were based on several factors.

1. The explanation of Article 36 of the 1945 Constitution stated that “in the areas where local languages are actively spoken, the local people maintain and develop their local languages”.
2. At a national language seminar in February 1975 on the status and function of local languages in relation to the national language, the languages mentioned previously were said to function as local languages. There were several functions of local languages: a symbol of local pride, local identity, and as a lingua franca of local family and community. Furthermore, in relation to national language, local languages had several functions such as: (a) supporter of national language, (b) instructional language at primary schools in particular areas to support the teaching of Bahasa Indonesia and other subjects, and (c) as supporting instrument of local cultural development (Halim, 1980). Listing and intensifying the use of local languages were also formulated in the seminar of national language politics in 1975.
3. The 1993 Guidelines of State Policy (GBHN), Number 3 f, stipulated that “the maintenance of local language should be sustained in order to develop and enrich Bahasa Indonesia vocabulary and Indonesian cultural diversity” (Alwi et. al., 2000). Consequently, it is necessary to conduct research, as well as study and develop the local language and literature and publish them in the mass media and other publications.
4. One of the agreements of the fourth Indonesian Language Congress in 1993, particularly in the area of local language and literature, was that the local languages in certain areas could be taught to the student speakers without hampering the teaching of Indonesian language and literature (See Mahsun 2000; Mu’adz, 2000). For that reason, curricula, textbooks of teaching and learning methodology and other infrastructure to support local language education should be developed.

Language Maintenance and Educational Policy

There are a lot of local languages in Indonesia used every day by the local people in their own family and community (Grimes, 1992; Kopong, 1995). The use of local language as a means of communication represents the homogeneity of the speakers. In other words, it is not possible to use the local language if in a family, for example, husband and wife, come from different ethnic backgrounds. Yet, language choice could be the appropriate answer (Basri, 1996).

Furthermore, as a means of communication local languages are widely used as the means of expressing local art and cultural performance (Kopong, 1995; Sneddon, 2003). Some local languages in Indonesia have their own script whereas most local languages do not have any script. On the other hand, many local languages use Latin script for language maintenance purpose.

The use of local language script is commonly found in writing traditions in several strong languages such as Javanese, Sudanese and Minangkabau (Mahsun, 2000; Mu’adz, 2000). Furthermore, local languages are also used in particular mass media such as radio, television and newspapers. Several FM radios have local language news as well as entertainment programs in local languages.

In terms of cultural ceremony and rituals, local languages are usually used as the medium of expression. There are several kinds of traditional events in Indonesia which incorporate the use of local languages (Basri, 1996; Kopong, 1995). For example, wedding ceremonies in particular areas in Indonesia use the local language as a means of expression.

In the educational field, local languages are usually used either as instructional languages or as school subjects. As instructional languages, they are used in Grades 1 to 3, particularly in those geographic areas where many very young students are not yet able to speak Bahasa Indonesia (Mu’adz, 2000).

Local Language as an Instructional language and as a Subject

Indonesian as an instructional language and as a subject at schools has been widely accepted in Indonesia. There have been no complaints regarding the use of Bahasa Indonesia in the school educational settings (Abas, 1987; Sumampouw, 2003). Nevertheless, the use of local languages in educational settings could give rise to problems since there are hundreds of local languages existing in Indonesia. Yet, according to government policy in each district or Kabupaten there should be only one dominant local language that could be used as an instructional language or taught as a school subject (Utomo, et al., 1997; Rosidi, 2001).

Some local languages have been taught at schools in Indonesia. Yet, there are still many obstacles encountered in local language education. One of the obstacles is that there is no formal educational institution preparing prospective local language teachers for primary and secondary schools (Mahsun, 2000; Mu’adz, 2000). For these reasons, many schools still have difficulties in dealing with the recruitment of local language teachers. The current solution is only a temporary one since it involves qualified teachers of other languages to teach the local languages. 

What are the prospects for other languages in Indonesia?  According to Grimes (1988), of 670 local languages in Indonesia only 50 local languages are recognized as having a future, whereas 620 local languages are threatened to be endangered due to the number of speakers falling to less than 100.000 people. Based on the data collected in 1990, there were eight local languages which had more than two million speakers, while the other 660 local languages had more than 27 million speakers with around 40 thousand indigenous speakers on each average. Thirty local languages had more than 100 thousand speakers and were considered safe (BPS, 1990). Thus over 620 languages were threatened (See also, Crystal, 2000 and Sneddon, 2003). Table 3.1 shows the languages with more than two million speakers in 1990 in Indonesia.

Table 3.1 The Languages of Indonesia with more than two million speakers

No. Language Name Number of Speakers % 1. Javanese 60.267.461 38.08 2. Sundanese 24.155.962 15.26 3. Indonesian 24.042.010 15.19 4. Madura 6.792.447 4.29 5. Minang 3.527.726 2.23 6. Bugis 3.228.742 2.04 7. Batak 3.120.047 1.97 8. Bali 2.589.256 1.64 9. Banjar 2.755.337 1.74 10. Other Languages 27.070.883 17.11 11. Not answered 712.629 0.4 12. Total 158.262.639 100

Source: BPS (1990)

There has been no report on moribund language in Indonesia so far. Yet, if there is no action plan for language maintenance to prevent the threat, moribund languages will occur (Basri, 1986; Crystal, 2000). Consequently, there are several factors that are conducive to the formation of moribund languages in Indonesia.

First, of 600 local languages in Indonesia most have a very small number of speakers and, in addition, these speakers live in isolated and remote areas (Basri, 1986; Grimes, 1988). Mobility, urbanization, transmigration, and reforestration might also contribute to the incidence of moribund languages. Furthermore, the minority groups of local language speakers live with many people from different ethnic groups. Meanwhile many children who have a good command of Bahasa Indonesia tend to migrate to the city to advance their education (Sumampouw, 2003). When they complete their study and get a good job, they seldom go back to their home town. Since they have gained a different linguistic and cultural background and do not live with their ethnic group, the process of language loss has taken place.

Second, more than 600 local languages do not have a writing tradition or script. Local knowledge and history are only orally reported and discussed (Kopong, 1995). For that reason, variety in appreciation and understanding of the local language exists between different generations. Such a condition results in a lack of language and cultural pride among children. Neverhtheless, most schools are dominated by the use of the Indonesian language in most aspects of education, not much special educational effort is designed to encourage the children to appreciate their language and culture (Basri, 1986). As a result, the local people do not realize that the schools have alienated the children from both their socio-cultural environment and from their mainstream cultural environment that they do not yet fully understand (Nagai, 1999; Teasdale, 2000). In addition, through formal education the children might accept that their own language and culture are inferior to the national language and culture. As a result, when they complete their years of study and get a job, they feel prouder to use their national language than their local ethnic language to communicate with their friends of the same ethnic and linguistic background (Sumampouw, 2003).

Third, the domination of Bahasa Indonesia as a national language has threatened the existence of local languages (Mu’adz, 2000). In general, the mass media have used Bahasa Indonesia as a means of communication and as a consequence Bahasa Indonesia has become the only instructional language which were generally used from the pre-school level to the university level (Basri, 1986; Rosidi, 2001). The use of Bahasa Indonesia as a single instructional language has largely had a detrimental impact on the development of local languages. For example, the use of the local language has been limited to only the home language. The children do not have an appreciation of their local language because the language is not used in the school setting. Sudaryanto (1991) stated that the National Development Language Centre focused more on national language development than on local language maintenance. As a consequence, the local language is not a compulsory subject at school. Intermarriage among different ethnic and linguistic background people is likely to contribute to local language loss. In other words, the trend of intermarriage is highly conducive to this language loss (Paulston, 1994). The children are more likely to acquire and use their national language, Bahasa Indonesia, as the means of communication both in formal situations and non-formal situations (Sumampouw, 2003). Thus, the national language becomes the dominant language among the family after intermarriage.

Local Language as an Instructional Language in Schools

Article 36 of the 1945 Constitution states that the national language in Indonesia is Bahasa Indonesia. The explanation of Article 36 of the 1945 Constitution is as follows:

The local languages of Indonesia e.g. Javanese, Sundanese and Madurese, are maintained by their speakers. The local languages are also maintained and developed by the Government of Indonesia. The local languages have become a part of Indonesian living culture.

 (Mu’adz, 2000, p. 82)

Article 36 has a close link with Article 32 which sates “the Government of Indonesia develops Indonesian national culture” with the following explanation.

The national culture is the culture created by all the Indonesian people. The old and original culture is the ultimate national culture. Culture development must aim at development of civilization, culture and unity without rejecting positive things originated from foreign culture which can develop and enrich the national culture itself, as well as promoting the self-esteem of Indonesian people

(Mu’adz, 2000,  p.82).

Based on the Articles of the 1945 Constitution above, it is implied that like the national language, the local languages are maintained by the government and the local languages function as a means of cultural expression and in addition form an integral part of the national culture (Kopong, 1995).

Exclusive use of Bahasa Indonesia as an instructional language in schools was not criticized either politically or academically. The policy has become one of complacency (Alwasilah, 1997; Abas, 1987). The use of the Indonesian language as the only instructional language in schools should be politically and academically reviewed because the policy does not have any link with the spirit of the two related articles given above. 

There are several reasons why the use of the local language as the instructional language at school must be reviewed (Basri, 2003; Sumapouw, 2003). First of all, the use of the Indonesian language as the instructional language in schools includes the use of all teaching materials, test items and the teaching and learning processes. There is no problem with the use of Bahasa Indonesia in schools if the majority of students are speakers of the Bahasa Indonesia. On the one hand, 75 per cent of students have their own local languages and only two per cent of students are native speakers of the Indonesian language (Mu’adz, 2000). On the other hand, most students in primary school have to study mathematics, social sciences and other subjects with a poor command of the Indonesian language. Consequently, many students have difficulties in understanding the lessons they learn at school.

According to some studies conducted in Indonesia, many students from primary schools in the remote villages have lower academic performance compared to their counterparts in the cities (Mu’adz, 2000). The students in the remote villages have to learn both their lessons and Bahasa Indonesia at the same time, whereas the students living in the cities are native speakers of Bahasa Indonesia or at least bi-lingual (See also Harris, 1990). In other words, the urban students can learn Bahasa Indonesia directly. Meanwhile the rural students have double burdens; their own compulsory language lessons and Bahasa Indonesia.

Several studies on second language acquisition have recommended that the learning process of science concepts should be carried out in the first language or mother tongue (UNESCO, 1953). The first language is the ideal language to build the basic concept of children’s knowledge to understand their world view. If the foundations of children’s knowledge concepts have been strongly established in the first language, the understanding of the same concepts of knowledge conveyed in the second language would be easier to learn. The same thing would happen to the learning of a second language (Krashen and Biber, 1988; Cummins, 1989; Lightbown and Spada, 2003). For that reason, the first language should be used as the instructional language at schools before the student masters a second language.

Freeman et al. (1992) stated that students studying at schools with English as the only instructional language, often lagged behind in their other school subjects, for example, mathematics and the sciences. On the other hand, students studying at schools with their mother tongue as the instructional language could follow the subjects more easily. A longitudinal study in United States conducted by Remirez 1991 (cited in Mu’adz, 2000) showed the same results as discussed previously.

Based on previous studies, local languages used as the instructional languages at the lower primary school level, Grades 1 to 4, would obviously be required, whereas for Grade 5 and 6, both the mother tongue and the Indonesian language should be used together (Mu’adz, 2000). It would be important to stress that the use of local languages in schools would probably not hamper the students’ Indonesian language development. Thus, the use of local languages as the means of communication would not threaten the position of Indonesian language as a national language that must be mastered by all Indonesian people (Marhum; 1999; Sumampouw, 2003).

Mu’adz (2000) suggested that there were several important reasons why the local languages must be taught at schools in Indonesia. First, the local language could become the means of positive self-image formation for students as native speakers. The use of local language in schools should encourage the students to take pride and have self-confidence in themselves. They would feel that their local languages were respected in schools. For this reason, the students might feel more comfortable at school. Lucas et al (1990) in their study of six high schools with bilingual education and with high academic performance showed that the six school bilingual programs respect the students’ local languages and culture. The researchers recorded eight ways in which schools respect the local language and culture:

a)      treating students as individuals, not as members of a group;

b)      learning about students’ culture;

c)      learning about the students’ language;

d)     hiring bilingual staff of similar cultural background to the students;

e)      encouraging students to develop their primary language skills;

f)       allowing students to speak their primary languages except when the  development of the English language was the focus of instruction and interaction;

g)      offering advanced as well as lower division content courses in the students’ primary languages; and

h)      instituting extracurricular activities that would attract students.

However, if schools did not show pride in students’ local languages and culture, the students might rapidly lose their self-confidence (Lucas et al. 1990). Thus, by the time students started their higher academic activities, they did not have sufficient preparation regarding both academic and cultural matter because their understanding of the lessons has transmitted through a language that they had not mastered very well. This burden only discouraged the students from further study.

The other reason why local languages must be taught in schools is that it is necessary to maintain the local language in order to prevent it from becoming endangered or extinct (Skutnab-Kangas and Cummins, 1988; Crystal, 2000). However, the use of local language as an instructional language could also be enriched by foreign languages. Many science concepts that derived from foreign terminology have been adopted into local languages.

The use of local language as the instructional language may result in forming the habit by the children to use their local language for science and technology concepts they study at schools (Mu’adz, 2000). Thorough this process, the terminology of science and technology can be adopted. The students may maintain their habit of using their local language right up to the highest levels of their schooling.

The use of a local language as an instructional language may contribute to the greater appreciation and pride of children towards their local language and culture (Saifuddin, 2004). The children may be encouraged to learn their culture more intensively so that they know about its variety and uniqueness, the local wisdom and the universal values of their culture (Kopong, 1995, Teasdale, 2000). The understanding of local culture could encourage the students to learn their national culture. Furthermore, they are not uprooted from their basic culture.

Local Language as a School Subject

Mu’adz (2000:p.85) suggested that there were several reasons why some particular local languages in Indonesia should be incorporated into the school curriculum: First, the 1945 Constitution recommends the maintenance of local language. The students should give their local language the same value as their national language. Therefore, the local language should be incorporated into the school curriculum. Second, the students might be expected to become more highly motivated to learn their local language, history and culture if the local languages were incorporated into the school curriculum (Utomo at al., 1988). The incorporation of local language into the school curriculum would mean that the government had put the educational institution closer to the socio-cultural situation of the children (Mu’adz, 2000; Saifuddin, 2004). It was also expected that the students would become the agent or rescuer and developer of their own local language and culture. Without the active participation of students, the development policy of the local language and culture could not be easily implemented.

Third, the mastery of writing skills in their mother tongue could boost the children’s development of cognition and intellectuality. Swain et al (1990) reported on a study of comparison of bilingual education groups. The first group was a group that learnt reading skills with their mother tongue whereas the second group learnt reading skills using their second language. When the two groups learnt a third language, it was found that the first group (with mother tongue) learnt the third language faster than the second group. The study showed empirical evidence of the importance of local language teaching (Nagai, 1997). The local language supported the development of the children’s intellectuality.

Local language teaching should be differentiated into two types that were the teaching of local language as the first language and the teaching of local language as a second language (Mu’adz, 2000). The content of the two types of language teaching were different. The teaching of a local language as the mother tongue or first language included both language issues and local culture and history. However, the teaching of a local language as second language was focused on the use of local language for practical and communicative purposes (See also Nunan, 1988). In addition, the teaching of local language as a second language would commonly be implemented in urban areas since most students used Bahasa Indonesia or other local languages as their mother tongue. However, the programs for the incorporation of a local language into the local content of the school curriculum had not considered the above recommendation.

Educational Decentralization Policy

According to Hanson and Anderson (1998, p.2), decentralization is defined as the transfer of decision making authority, responsibility and tasks from higher to lower organizational levels or between organizations. Hanson and Anderson (1998) further suggest that there are three major forms of decentralization.

1. Deconcentration typically involves the transfer of tasks and work, but not authority, to other units in the organization.
2. Delegation involves the transfer of decision making authority from higher to lower hierarchical units, but that authority can be withdrawn at the discretion of the delegating unit.
3. Devolution refers to the transfer of authority to an autonomous unit that can act independently, or a unit that can act without first asking permission (Hanson & Anderson, 1998; p. 2).

Karmel (1971) reported on the use of decentralization to the Committee of Enquiry into education in South Australia that two forms of decentralization should be considered. These forms were to:

(a)    involve the devolution of authority within the Education Department,

(b)   involve people outside the department in general policy decisions.

Caldwell (2002, p.2) argued that devolution was suitable for the decentralization of education. He further argued that:

Responsibility should be devolved as far as possible upon the people involved in the actual task of schooling, in consultation with the parents of the pupils whom they teach and, at senior levels, with the students themselves.  Its belief  in this grass-roots approach to the control of schools reflects a conviction that responsibility will be most effectively discharged where the people entrusted with making decisions are also the people responsible  for carrying them out, with an obligation to justify them, and in a position to profit from their experience.

Sturman (1989, p.5) suggested that there were four different types or levels of decentralization: regionalization, school-based curriculum decision making, teacher-based curriculum decision making, and the participation of parents and community in curriculum decision making. The types and levels of decentralization were also suggested by Millard, (1988) and Marsh and Willis (1999). Each of these was addressed through reference to the different frames of influence, that is, respectively, the administrative frame, the school frame, the individual frame and the community frame.

Mboi (1989, p.234) argued that decentralization had also given more attention to the minority groups, namely the groups that might have been neglected and marginalized in the past. In Indonesia decentralized government and local autonomy were the most current policies. The concept and application of a decentralized policy was introduced from January 2001. However, Tilaar (2003) argued that the regional autonomy had also resulted in the revival of tribalism, ethnic pride and ethnic fanaticism. Yet Madjid, (1999, p.204) claimed that the implementation of democracy in Indonesia in the regional autonomy era was significantly influenced by the decision making of dominant ethnic groups in particular areas.

Karim et al. (2003) argued that the introduction of regional autonomy laws (decentralization) also brought about several conflicts of interest among stakeholders within government institutions in Indonesia. Furthermore, Liddle (1996) maintained that bureaucracy also dominated the government, in the sense that bureaucrats were the most powerful actors in most policy conflicts. Sjahrir (2004) argued that conflict of interest in Indonesia in the regional autonomy era was inevitable.

According to the Ministry of National Education, (2002,p.2), in the education sector, local autonomy was meant to develop democratic, transparent and accountable education, creating educational institutions that were more autonomous, independent, professional and not influenced by ordinary self-interest. Davis and Stark (2001,p.4) suggested that the decision of those on whom we depend should be independent, unbiased and impartial in order to avoid conflict of interest in a particular domain.

Indonesia’s schools needed to develop a capacity to govern themselves in areas of financial, curriculum and human resources management (See Listiyono, 2003). Furthermore, Waris (2000, p.3) argued that a decentralized strategy was naturally a legal process of relocating powers from the centre to regional and local authorities. Basically, this was a distribution of benefits and burdens of education to all local authorities and citizens. The law had given broad powers to local governments in all public sectors except the sectors explicitly reserved to the central government, such as foreign policy, defence security, justice, monetary and fiscal matters and religion. Jalal and Musthafa (2001, p.15) reported that:

Central Government holds authority in handling issues in national identity and integrity, international education services, national standardization and cross-provincial interests. The authority covers the making of policies, guidelines, standards, requirements, procedures and administration. The local governments are responsible for its implementation. Since the implementation of Regional Autonomy is still in the framework of unitary state of the Republic of Indonesia, the local education system should be in the framework of national education system.

There were several benefits of autonomous education. Kopong (1995), for example, suggested that people at a grass roots level and local authorities would have the opportunity to plan, manage, implement, and evaluate their local educational institutions. In other words, local authorities and educators would get empowerment in educational decision making (Caldwell, 2002; Ministry of National Education, 2002). Through democratization, all communities would have access to involvement in the development of education. However, Goodlad (1991) suggested that the role of education in a democratic society, and the nature and the locus of control most appropriate to schools were charged with serving the often conflicting interests of both individuals and polity.

How to make an efficient autonomous education system would become the main issue. Jazadi (2003b), for example, argued that it was expected that decentralized education would be better than a centralized one. Skills and capacity were required to implement efficient educational decentralization. The development of institutional and individual capacity that could improve efficiency in educational management was a major task. Furthermore, it was believed that participation of local communities could boost equality and relevance (Kopong, 1995; Nagai, 1997).

Developing a new curriculum must aim at accommodating regional and local diversity. A quality standard of curriculum could be achieved through a diverse curriculum design (Keeves, 1990; Kopong, 1995). Meanwhile, a competency based curriculum had been tried out at a number of schools. The curriculum was based on the local main competency of each district or region. Kopong (1995) argued that currently every school was expected to develop local curriculum content in addition to innovation in instructional strategies.

Schools would have the opportunity to govern themselves through educational decentralization (Caldwell, 2002; Madya, 2002). They should aim to achieve a professional and efficient management, effective instruction and excellent educational output. In addition, schools should become the frontier for the development of creativity and innovation for better educational outputs. Teachers should define themselves as managers dedicating themselves to gain optimum results from their students, particularly in the areas of learning and performance.

Schools were currently turning to become more professional. They were expected to become more efficient educational institutions and could develop in the competitive surroundings (Kaplan and Baldauf, 1997). Each school would be required to use its resources effectively and to achieve outstanding performance relative to others.

The Ministry of Education (2002) reported that the government, society and families should be responsible for public education. More effective educational services could be achieved through synergized efforts (Jazadi, 2003b). School autonomy would bring more and more people’s minds and thought into education. The government would no longer intervene in school management and in addition the local communities would be given greater opportunities to develop their school (Kopong, 1994; Nagai 1997).  School based management would be introduced to make the schools more independent.

Political reform in Indonesia led to the enactment of Law No. 22 of 1999 on decentralization and regional autonomy, as well as Government Regulation No. 25 of 2000 on the central government’s authority and the autonomous provincial government’s authority (Surya, 2002; Ministry of National Education, 2002). Each local government, district and municipality council was given greater autonomy to control its own people and to provide greater public service for them than the central government formerly did (Alm & Bahl, 1999; SFDM P4D, 2002). In terms of democratization issues, politicians and local community would have greater autonomy for public policy making than the bureaucrats formerly provided. In line with the above policy on decentralization and regional autonomy, the Ministry of National Education (2002), for example, took a number of measures which included (a) decentralizing educational management through piloting the implementation of school-based management, a management system which was just the opposite of a centralized one; (b) the restructuring of the Ministry of Education organization, and (c) the passing of the Educational Bill.

Following the downfall of the Orde Baru Regime, the New Government of the Republic of Indonesia introduced Law No. 22 of 1999 on Regional Government Autonomy and Government Regulation No. 25 of 2000 on the sharing of authority in education. The People’s Consultative Assembly issued Decree No. IV/MPR/2000 on policy recommendations which were concerned with the implementation of Regional Autonomy that the National Assembly had recommended full implementation of autonomy as of 1 January 2001, and asked Government to issue the regulations needed for the full implementation (Santoso, 2003). In line with educational decentralization, Madya (2002) reported that Government Regulation No. 25/2000 stipulated the sharing of authority between central government and local government.

Jalal and Musthafa (2001) reported that educational decentralization was concerned with (a) institutional and personal affairs, (b) budgeting, and (c) academic affairs. In the institutional and personal matters, the district had to formulate regulations on the implementation of educational decentralization such as district regulation for organizations and work systems, the recruitment of teachers and other educational personnel, staff development and planning (see Kaplan and Baldauf, 1997). The district also had full autonomy in formulating budgeting policy and its related regulations. Thus the district had greater opportunity to determine the direction or orientation of the educational development to meet its own needs.

Regional Autonomy in Perspective of Education

According to Surya (2002, p.2), one of the major changes in Indonesia was a national commitment to implement regional autonomy based on Law No. 22/1999. Decentralization of education was a logical consequence of this commitment and was expected to empower the provision of education at the level of districts, institutional education and classrooms (Jalal and Musthafa, 2001). Educational decentralization may be implemented through the provision of power for teachers and other school personnel to make their best professional decision at the micro level.  Surya (2002, p, 2) stated that: